Exercise 1
Choose the correct word to complete each sentence about opinions, debate and critical thinking.
Example: She made a strong ______ against the proposed policy. (argument / opinion / point)
Answer: She made a strong argument against the proposed policy.
Opinions, Debate and Critical Thinking in English
Being able to express your opinion clearly, argue a point persuasively, and evaluate other people's reasoning are essential skills in English — whether you're taking part in a seminar, writing an essay, listening to a podcast, or simply having a heated discussion with a friend. At B2 level, it's not enough to say "I think it's good" — you need the vocabulary to qualify your claims, challenge assumptions, concede a point, and draw well-reasoned conclusions.
Imagine this situation: Two university students, Priya and Marcus, are preparing for a class debate on whether social media does more harm than good. As they discuss their arguments, they use a range of language to express views, push back on each other's ideas, and think critically about the evidence in front of them. The vocabulary in this lesson will help you do exactly the same.
Key Vocabulary & Meaning Breakdown
1. Expressing and Qualifying Opinions
These words and phrases help you state your view with precision — and with the right level of certainty or caution.
| Word / Phrase | Part of Speech & Meaning | Example Sentence | Collocations / Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| contend | verb — to argue or assert that something is true, especially in a debate or formal context | Priya contends that social media has fundamentally changed how young people communicate. | contend that / contend with (a problem) — formal register; common in academic writing |
| assert | verb — to state something confidently and firmly without necessarily offering proof | Marcus asserted that the negative effects of social media are greatly exaggerated. | assert that / assert oneself — more forceful than "say"; implies confidence |
| maintain | verb — to continue to hold an opinion, even when challenged | She maintained her position throughout the debate, despite the strong opposition. | maintain that / maintain a position / maintain one's stance |
| stance | noun — a person's attitude or position on a particular issue | What is the government's stance on free speech online? | take a stance / adopt a stance / firm stance / neutral stance |
| perspective | noun — a particular way of thinking about or viewing something, shaped by experience or context | From a sociological perspective, the rise of influencers is a fascinating phenomenon. | from a ... perspective / broaden one's perspective / offer a new perspective |
| nuanced | adjective — showing careful awareness of fine distinctions and subtle differences | Her argument was nuanced and took into account a wide range of factors. | a nuanced view / a nuanced argument / nuanced understanding |
| tentative | adjective — not definite or certain; offered with some hesitation or caution | He offered a tentative suggestion that both sides might have valid points. | tentative conclusion / tentative agreement / tentatively (adverb) |
| conviction | noun — a strong belief or opinion held with confidence | She spoke with great conviction about the need for stricter data privacy laws. | speak with conviction / hold a conviction / deeply held conviction |
2. Debating, Arguing and Challenging
These words are used when you need to push back, respond to an argument, or engage critically with someone else's point of view.
| Word / Phrase | Part of Speech & Meaning | Example Sentence | Collocations / Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| counter | verb — to respond to an argument by saying or doing something that opposes it | Marcus countered Priya's point by citing a recent study on digital wellbeing. | counter an argument / counter a claim / counter with evidence |
| rebut | verb — to prove that a claim or argument is wrong by using evidence or logic | She rebutted the claim with three clear examples from peer-reviewed research. | rebut a claim / rebut an argument — more formal than "counter"; implies evidence |
| concede | verb — to admit, often reluctantly, that something is true or that an opponent has made a valid point | Marcus conceded that Priya had a point about the mental health risks for teenagers. | concede a point / concede that / concede defeat — shows intellectual honesty |
| refute | verb — to prove conclusively that something is wrong; stronger than "rebut" | The scientist refuted the theory with overwhelming experimental data. | refute a claim / refute an argument — often misused to mean "deny"; correct use requires evidence |
| dispute | verb / noun — (v) to question whether something is true or correct; (n) a disagreement or argument | Several economists dispute the government's employment figures. / The dispute over the new policy lasted months. | dispute a claim / a heated dispute / beyond dispute / in dispute |
| advocate | verb / noun — (v) to publicly support or recommend something; (n) a person who supports a cause | Priya advocates for greater regulation of social media platforms. / She is a strong advocate for digital literacy. | advocate for / advocate change — formal register; common in political and academic writing |
| rebuke | verb / noun — to express sharp disapproval or criticism of someone | The chairperson rebuked the speaker for making unsupported claims. | receive a rebuke / sharp rebuke — stronger and more negative than "criticise" |
| opposition | noun — resistance or disagreement towards something | There was considerable opposition to the proposed changes to the curriculum. | face opposition / strong opposition / in opposition to / meet with opposition |
3. Critical Thinking and Evaluating Arguments
These words help you assess the quality, validity, and reliability of information and arguments — a key skill in academic and professional English.
| Word / Phrase | Part of Speech & Meaning | Example Sentence | Collocations / Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| assumption | noun — something accepted as true without proof or evidence | The argument rests on the assumption that all users are exposed to the same content. | make an assumption / challenge an assumption / underlying assumption / faulty assumption |
| premise | noun — a statement or idea that forms the basis of an argument | If you accept the premise that privacy is a fundamental right, the conclusion follows logically. | accept a premise / flawed premise / on the premise that — formal; common in logic and philosophy |
| implication | noun — a likely consequence or conclusion that is not directly stated | The implications of this policy for small businesses could be severe. | the implications of / broader implications / consider the implications / policy implications |
| validity | noun — the quality of being logically sound or well-grounded | Several experts questioned the validity of the research methods used in the study. | question the validity / doubt the validity / validity of an argument / of evidence |
| bias | noun / verb — an unfair preference for or against something, often resulting in inaccurate judgement | We need to be aware of our own bias when evaluating sources of information. | show bias / inherent bias / media bias / confirmation bias / biased (adj) |
| fallacy | noun — a mistaken belief or a flaw in reasoning that makes an argument invalid | Claiming that something must be true because it has always been done that way is a common logical fallacy. | logical fallacy / commit a fallacy / the fallacy of — formal; useful in academic writing and debate |
| scrutinise | verb — to examine or inspect something very carefully and critically | Journalists must scrutinise government claims rather than simply repeating them. | scrutinise evidence / scrutinise a claim / come under scrutiny (noun form) |
| substantiate | verb — to provide evidence that proves or supports a claim | Can you substantiate that claim with any reliable data? | substantiate a claim / substantiate an argument / unsubstantiated (adj) |
| objective | adjective — not influenced by personal feelings or opinions; based on facts | A good debate requires objective analysis of the evidence, not emotional reactions. | objective analysis / remain objective / an objective view — opposite: subjective |
| conjecture | noun / verb — an opinion formed without firm evidence; a guess | At this stage, everything we know about the cause of the problem is pure conjecture. | pure conjecture / mere conjecture / based on conjecture — formal; implies uncertainty |
Collocations & Useful Expressions
Understanding how these words combine with others will make your English sound much more natural and fluent. Here are key collocations from the topic of opinions, debate, and critical thinking:
take + a stance
You need to take a clear stance on the issue before the debate begins.
challenge + an assumption
Good critical thinkers are not afraid to challenge the assumptions behind a popular argument.
come under + scrutiny
The company's financial practices came under intense scrutiny after the report was published.
put forward + an argument / a point of view
She put forward a compelling argument in favour of renewable energy subsidies.
hold + a conviction / a view
He holds the firm conviction that freedom of speech must never be restricted.
weigh up + the evidence / the pros and cons
Before forming an opinion, it's important to weigh up all the available evidence.
draw + a conclusion
It's too early to draw any firm conclusions from the initial data.
back up + a claim / an argument
Every claim you make in an essay should be backed up with reliable evidence.
reach + a consensus
After two hours of debate, the committee finally reached a consensus on the proposed policy.
shed light on + an issue
The new documentary sheds light on the hidden consequences of fast fashion.
play devil's advocate
Let me play devil's advocate for a moment — what if the critics are actually right?
(Note: to argue the opposite side, not necessarily because you believe it, in order to test an argument or provoke discussion)
sit on the fence
He tends to sit on the fence rather than commit to a clear position.
(Note: to avoid taking a clear opinion on something; often used critically)
the other side of the coin
Social media can increase awareness, but the other side of the coin is the spread of misinformation.
(Note: used to introduce the opposite or contrasting aspect of a situation)
Important Differences & Confusing Words
Refute vs Rebut vs Deny
These three words all involve responding to a claim, but they are not interchangeable:
- Refute means to prove conclusively that something is wrong, usually with strong evidence. It implies success.
The scientist refuted the theory with data collected over ten years. - Rebut means to argue against a claim, though it does not necessarily mean the argument is proven false. The rebuttal may or may not succeed.
He rebutted her point, but the audience was not fully persuaded. - Deny simply means to say something is not true, with no implication of evidence.
The politician denied any involvement in the scandal.
⚠️ Many people use refute when they mean deny. In formal writing, this is considered an error.
Objective vs Subjective
- Objective — based on facts, not influenced by personal feelings.
The report provides an objective analysis of the data. - Subjective — based on personal opinions, feelings, or interpretations.
Whether a piece of art is beautiful is entirely subjective.
In critical thinking, distinguishing between objective evidence and subjective opinion is essential.
Implication vs Inference
- Implication — something that is suggested by a speaker or writer without being directly stated. The speaker implies it.
Her silence had serious implications — we assumed she disagreed. - Inference — a conclusion that the listener or reader draws from available information. The reader infers it.
From the data, we can draw the inference that screen time is increasing.
A helpful way to remember: A speaker implies; a listener infers.
Assumption vs Premise
- Assumption — something taken for granted, often without awareness or examination. Can be faulty.
Your whole argument is built on the assumption that the data is accurate. - Premise — a stated starting point in a logical argument; usually more deliberate and formal than an assumption.
The debate begins from the premise that free healthcare is a basic right.
Common Mistakes
❌ She rebutted the theory with no evidence at all, so we accepted her point.
✅ She denied / disputed the theory — She disputed the theory, though she provided no evidence to support her view.
(Rebutting implies making a counter-argument; if no evidence is given, "dispute" or "deny" is more accurate.)
❌ In my opinion, I personally think that this is wrong and I believe it's not right.
✅ Choose one opinion phrase and be direct: In my view, this approach is fundamentally flawed.
(Stacking multiple opinion phrases sounds repetitive and weakens your argument. One clear phrase is stronger.)
❌ His argument was very bias.
✅ His argument was very biased.
("Bias" is a noun; "biased" is the adjective. You cannot use "bias" as an adjective.)
❌ I refute that claim — I simply don't agree with it.
✅ I dispute / reject that claim. I dispute that claim — I don't believe it reflects the evidence.
(To refute something, you must prove it is wrong, not simply disagree with it.)
❌ She advocated the use of stricter laws.
✅ She advocated for the use of stricter laws.
(In British English, "advocate for" is the standard collocation when supporting a cause or change.)
❌ His point of view is very subjective and based on facts.
✅ His argument is objective and based on facts.
(Subjective means opinion-based, not fact-based. These are opposite concepts.)
❌ The government made an implication from the statistics that crime was falling.
✅ The government drew an inference from the statistics — The government drew the inference that crime was falling.
(The government is the reader/interpreter here, so they infer, not imply.)
Opinions, Debate and Critical Thinking: Quick Summary & Review
In this lesson, you have explored a rich range of vocabulary for expressing, defending, and evaluating opinions in English. Here are the key takeaways:
- Use precise opinion verbs like contend, assert, and maintain to express views with confidence and appropriate formality.
- In debates, use counter, rebut, and concede to engage with opposing arguments respectfully and intelligently.
- Critical thinking language — including assumption, bias, fallacy, and validity — allows you to evaluate the quality of arguments rather than just accepting them.
- Know the difference between closely related words: refute is not the same as deny; imply is not the same as infer; objective is the opposite of subjective.
- Register matters: words like rebuke, substantiate, conjecture, and premise are formal and suit academic writing and debate; expressions like sit on the fence and play devil's advocate are more informal and conversational.
- Strong collocations — such as back up a claim, weigh up the evidence, and reach a consensus — make your English sound natural and fluent.
Now practise Opinions, Debate and Critical Thinking vocabulary in the exercises below.
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